My favorite MadonellaIntroduction:In order to observe culture, one needs only to observe people. True culture is most evident in the subconscious and instinctive habits of native peoples. However, in order to even begin to understand a culture, one must understand its history – namely the motivations, traditions, and morals that underlie those habits we witness today. Roman Street Shrines are representations of a Roman tradition that began as early as ancient Rome, changed throughout the centuries, and still exists today. The street shrines were (and still are) located directly on the streets where all who pass by can see them –believers and non-believers, Romans and non-Romans, rich and poor, past and current visitors.
Picture yourself walking home after a long day of work on the dark, dirty streets of Rome. You look up to your only light source. It is an oil-lamp illuminating a glowing Madonna. She is looking down at you –comforting you. She is adorned with beautiful sculptures of angels and is carrying baby Jesus on her lap. She is radiant, otherworldly, and ethereal. She will protect you. Throughout Rome, Madonnelle such as this one, provided comfort and reassurance. They played a huge part in the daily lives of all Romans: men and women, young and old, rich and poor. Unlike other Catholics inside and outside of Italy, Romans had an extremely personal way of expressing their love for the Madonna: Madonnelle were not only found in churches and private homes, but also in street shops, modern taverns, and all over the streets. In Rome, the Madonna was not only admired, but Madonnelle were included in daily activities, special rituals, and even accredited with performing miracles.
Unfortunately, there is also a dark side to the story of the street shrines. Creating sacred street imagery (like the Madonnelle) was a tradition initially centered on faith, love, and relationships, and in later periods was inversely used for propaganda and hidden agendas. Street shrines have always meant different things to different observers throughout the history of Rome –in large part because they have not always contained the same images or meanings. In fact, sacred street shrines went through three phases before they morphed into the Madonelle we see today. On the one hand, the changing treatment of street shrines by power-hungry leaders tells a story of a restless, manipulative, greedy Rome. On the other, the Roman peoples’ unfaltering devotion for the ever-changing street shrines depicts a flexible, loving, accepting Rome. However, not all Roman leaders caught on to the power of sacred street imagery right away. While some rulers like Augustus rapidly embraced the shrines and used them to his advantage (more on this later), not all Roman rulers did the same. For example, the Church refused to even acknowledge the value of street shrines for over a century –until they discovered the immense power that lied behind the faces on the shrines. Ultimately, the street shrines helped to facilitate transitions between rulers, to create trust and foster social capital, and to re-legitimize the church.
Description of Madonelle:
A very beautiful, mosaic Madonella.A Madonella is a street shrine that portrays the Madonna, sometimes holding Baby Jesus and often surrounded by heavenly angels. The Madonna, with her big, sympathetic eyes, looks out directly at the worshipper (and no longer only at Christ). She engages the viewer, promising protection and safety. Her main purpose is to watch over the viewer and relay his prayers to God. Thus, the shrines deliberately radiate a personal, loving aura.
Madonnelle typically combine elements from various earlier ages and styles. They can be seen in the form of sculptures, canvas paintings, paper prints, frescoes, terra cottas, and even mosaics. About six hundred in total were painted on canvas (often as frescoes) but many more were on simple printed paper. Some are still bright, while others are almost completely faded. In the 17th century, the development and spreading of stucco techniques made framing the images in little stucco reliefs possible. The very sophisticated street shrines often mixed the painting with elaborate sculptures of angels and beautiful architecture for the awnings (A Baroque tendency). However, sometimes the stucco around the images is so large and elaborate that the actual painting seems suffocated. Contrarily, other shrines were made with images of enormous paintings of a very complex, spot-lighted Madonna (Renaissance tendency).
Efforts were made to protect the Madonnelle from outside damage. To protect against damage caused by carriages, most of the images were placed high up from the ground, on the line that separates the ground floor from the first floor. To prevent damage from the rain, little baldaquins (permanent, ornamental canopies) could be placed above the shrines. However, there are a surpising amount of Madonnelle currently in decent condition considering they had no protection from theft or harassment.
Both the wealthy and the poor contributed to the creation of the Madonnelle. On one hand, it was considered common for everybody to worship the Madonnelle since they were visible to all –most Madonnelle were located on street corners, lit by oil-lamps, and served as the only public lighting for Rome. However, the materials used to make Madonnelle ordered by the rich were very different from the materials used to make those ordered by the poor. The rich often ordered their Madonnelle from professional artists, whereas the poor made the shrines themselves. Still, it was a comforting and uniting thought for the Romans to know that all people –men, women, children, adults, and the elderly –treated the niches as sacred spaces.
According to Alessandro Rufini, an art historian that took an interest in the Madonnelle, the shrines were visited and adorned daily with flowers and candles. These ex-voto, or votive offerings, were given in fulfillment of a vow, in gratitude, or in devotion. Oftentimes, they were metal ornaments shaped to represent answered prayers. For example, a metal heart might mean the Madonna helped with matters of the heart. Some people even decorated the street shrines with valuable coral or pearl necklaces. Other common offerings included everything from flowers to written texts and pictures depicting healed body parts and other miracles attributed to the helper. Furthermore, Roman oral traditions tell of loud Christmas concerts performed by countryside pipers in front of Madonnelle and include descriptions of children decorating the shrines on September 8th, the birthday of the Virgin Mary, and on August 15th, the day of the Virgin Mary. Sometimes, the connection worshippers formed with a specific Madonnella grew so strong that families would take it with them when they moved! Unfortunately for us, this is one of the reasons so little is known about most Madonna shrines.
Due to over three hundred years of bad weather, movement, anonymous artisans, and constant renovation, it is nearly impossible to date the Madonnelle or name their creators. Even the Romans simply deem Madonnelle “ancient.” Not even the theological genre of most images is known –the largest category of Madonnelle consists of unrecognizable images. Furthermore, some of these images are so faded that the face of the Madonna is not even visible. However, the purpose of the Madonnelle was not lost. In fact, the reason so little effort was expended on remembering dates, names, and other facts was because Romans did not think it important to do so. The meanings behind the paintings and the spiritual relationships created in front of them, were more important than the paintings themselves. Madonnelle were not intended to be criticized as artwork, but rather to be meditated upon as a connection to God. Thus, we can console ourselves with the idea that what was most important has been preserved.
History:The veneration and proliferation of sacred street imagery has pagan origins dating back as early as the 6th century BC, during the reign of Servius Tullus. They would originally have been sculptures or paintings of one or more domestic deities associated with spirits of the deceased, or lares, placed at the intersections of farms. There is some debate on the actual origins of the lares. Some myths say the lares were ghosts of destructive spirits that needed to be appeased. Others believe lares were farm deities with fertility powers. However, the most common myth holds that lares were guardian spirits that provided protection at the crossroads between neighborhoods, “where the known met the unknown.”
However, it was not until the 1st century BC, when Augustus redefined Rome’s internal boundaries and placed street shrines at the corners of large intersections that sacred street imagery took on full importance. In order to create a more organized city, Augustus split Rome into 265 neighborhoods and organized each around a street shrine. Practically, the shrines served as identification of the new neighborhoods. Spiritually, they were considered protective spirits. Traditionally, they were to be honored and worshipped. Praying to street shrines for comfort, aid, and giving thanks became daily events for most Romans. They even became sites for public auctions, popular rest areas for travelers, and places of pilgrimage. Furthermore, Rome was successfully split up into organized neighborhoods and still unified by a common thread. Romans from different neighborhoods were connected to one another through their veneration of the street shrines.
The street shrines did not depict lares for long. Augustus, observing the value of the shrines, cleverly renovated them with depictions of himself and of his family. In doing so, Augustus was able to emphasize his own piety, ensure daily veneration, and broaden his authority. Romans, believing the shrines protected them from harm, would now look to Augustus as their protector and savior. Interestingly, it was his use of the shrines as propaganda for creating, perpetuating, and spreading authority that caused street shrines to take a political meaning early on.
Much later, a new emperor and a new religion would again change the significance and the face of the shrines. In 312, Constantine converted to Christianity and made it the religion of the state. All of a sudden, Christians had a legitimate religion but none of the grandeur and lavishness that a state religion commands. The only Christian art in existence at that time was located in Catacombs –hidden underground and extremely basic. In order to quickly (and efficiently) depict Christianity as the state religion, the Church copied previous leaders and began a huge process of recycling –converting pagan art to Christian art. They transformed motifs, compositions, and art previously used for imperial propaganda into propaganda for Christ and icons of Christianity. Furthermore, the Christian religion stripped the emperor of his innate divineness, so most of the art once dedicated to the emperor was also changed to have Christian meaning. “To put it crudely, one might imagine the early Christians running around Rome with magic markers defacing government posters by sketching in a bearded Christ over the emperor’s face” (Edward Muir). Even previously pagan altars were taken over and made into Christian churches so the public could easily attend religious ceremonies even after the religion changed. The conversion was smart and economical, facilitating an incredibly speedy and grandiose transition to Christianity.
The street shrines were obviously affected, though not directly by the church. Instead, individual pilgrims, most likely members of the Marian Cult, replaced the pagan shrines with images of the Virgin Mary. The Marian cult, or the cult of the Madonna, is a name given to Christians for whom a central object of worship is the Virgin Mary, mother of Jesus Christ. By this time, the cult was widespread and generally well-received. However, the Church was not a fan. The Papacy wanted to keep the power as tightly in their hands as they could. They claimed that one must go through the Church to get salvation and to connect with God. It was the only way. The Madonna, believed to be an intermediary between man and God, was a challenge to the Church’s power. However, the Church, still in its early beginnings, was not in a position to completely deny worship of the Madonna, and so the street shrines continued to morph to show the face of the Madonna.
At first, the Pilgrims were neither encouraged nor dissuaded from creating the street shrines we see today. Hundreds sprung up all over Rome; each was created for a different reason from commemorating a happy event to protecting the neighborhood. With time however, the power and meaning behind the street shrines would once again prove to be immense. What happened during the reign of Augustus would happen again –the act of daily veneration would now be directed towards the new face on the shrines, the Madonna. As a result, the cult of the Madonna and the Madonna took on increasing importance in the Christian faith.
After about 400 AD, the Eternal City was hit by one disaster after another. Deforestation, erosion, overconsumption of resources (like fuel for the public baths), overpopulation, overgrazing, and early urbanization were starting to take their toll. Human overconsumption coupled with an unstable environment made the arrival of disasters inevitable. Erosion caused unstable marshlands, which lead to the spread of diseases like malaria. Rains altered coastlines and eventually flooded the lower parts of Rome and backed up the sewers. Ultimately, the plagues, sacks of the city, and crises within the Church (the Great Schism, the reformation) led to an even stronger proliferation of the holy, protective Madonnelle.
The power of the Madonnelle peaked when they started performing miracles. This would be the breaking point for the Church’s stand against them. The crises within the Church, combined with the performance of miracles by the Madonnelle, made it a wise and perhaps predictable decision for the Church to finally recognize and honor the Madonna. Whereas once the Madonnelle were ignored, they would now be treated royally. Interestingly, the Madonnelle started performing miracles around the same time the Church was having problems legitimizing their power.
As a side note, it should be known that the Church was not the only force that did not appreciate the street shrines. In fact, many foreign visitors to Rome believed that worshipping the Madonna was wrong and sinful. They labeled the Madonnelles “earthly images made by men with base and impure thoughts,” and claimed that praying in front of them was idolatrous. Some of them even reacted with force against the shrines. One such example was reported in August 1873 in La Voce della Verità, an aggressively pro-papal newspaper, stating that the Madonna image below the Arch of Biscione “had been desecrated by people throwing pieces of watermelon at it.” Another report claimed that “two recently arrived newcomers smashed the glass of the image of Holy Mary in Via dei Chiavari, and damaged it, saying: ‘If the Romans will not remove these dolls, we will smash them all’” (Taina Syrjämaa). Regardless of whether the newspaper is credible or not, one can naturally conclude that at least some animosity existed towards the street shrines. Fortunately for us, the Madonnelle were not destroyed and instead were protected and venerated over the years.
The cult of the Madonna began to be promoted by the Church in the early modern period. After having been ignored for years, the Madonnelle would now be accepted. The Madonna is a motherly figure that embodies love and protection. People can relate to her and believe she will act as an intermediary between them and God. She is loved, as is evident in the people’s fervent and spontaneous adoration of Madonnelle. However, she is not considered divine. Mary is venerated and honored for her connection to Christ and the Immaculate Conception, but she is not to be worshipped like a Goddess. The Church made this very clear. Still, the adoration of the Madonna and of the Madonnelle could not be stemmed. Ultimately, the Church gave in and commemorated the Marian Cult with a monument in the city centre, an endorsement of the tenets of the Immaculate Conception, and encouragement of the populace to venerate the shrines daily. Furthermore, Madonnelle that proved to be miraculous were brought inside churches and hung on consecrated walls. The more important figures would preside over enormous churches, and some had entire churches built for them, as will be explained later.
Miraculous Madonnelle and the Church went hand in hand as the Madonnelle were once again used as propaganda: for gaining legitimacy, power, and for spreading authority. The Madonnelle accredited with performing miracles were taken off the streets and placed inside churches. Thus, the Church cleverly succeeded in both recognizing the power of the Madonnelle and simultaneously moving that power back inside the Church. In an interesting twist of fate, the Madonnelle had moved from the dark streets to high altars.
MiraclesOne very famous, recorded miracle, arguably the first ever recorded happened in 1577. The Madonna of the Lantern, located at the base of a church on the Tiber Island stayed lit during a flood and continued to burn underwater. This is one of the first miracles to attract the attention of the Church.
The Madonna Annunciata, miraculous Madonnella.Other famous, recorded miracles include movements of the eyes. The Madonna Annunciata is known to have moved her eyes for three weeks staring July 4th, 1976. In order to be sure this miracle was real, the glass was removed from the Madonnella and the change in the eyes was measured with a compass. The Church eventually recognized five Madonnelle for having moved their eyes. However, not all were convinced by this miracle and we will hear from one doubter later on.
Otherwise, the most common miracles performed by Madonnelle included weeping, bleeding, and healing. Both weeping and bleeding were actions that served to give the Madonna human-like characteristics and to make her more relatable to the public. For example, the Madonna della Pace, after being struck by a gambler, started to bleed. This miracle led to the renaming and rebuilding of the Church of Aquarenariis by Pope Sixtus IV for the relocation of the Madonella. Whereas once the Church ignored the Madonnelle, they would now rebuild entire churches for them. Furthermore, this Madonella garnered even more attention as she became accredited with another miracle –bringing peace to Rome. In her honor, the church containing the Madonella was again renamed Santa Maria della Pace. However, honoring the Madonnella was not the only reason for the renaming of the church –a more political reason was to associate the Roman Church with peace and miracles.
The Vengeful Madonna served as protector of the Roman populace. Though it may sound contradictory to the tenets of the Church, it actually fits perfectly with beliefs in the Holy Bible –the Bible holds that those who sin will suffer, those who repent will be forgiven, and that believers will be protected from harm. One example of a Vengeful Madonna is the Madonnella della Miesericorida. This Madonnella was hit with a rock thrown by an angry gambler. Instantly, his arm was paralyzed. The miracle ends with the gambler repenting forty days later and accordingly regaining the use of his arm. Thus, the Madonella is both protector (of Christianity) and forgiver. This is similar to the way the Church portrayed itself –having the powers to both punish and forgive.
Other miracles include two children who fell seven meters into a ditch without injury because of their proximity to a Madonnella; a Roman woman whose breast was healed by the oil of a lamp burning in front of the Madonna; a woman who was saved at the last moment from committing suicide; and a man who was saved from unjust accusations because of his commitment to the Madonna.
Throughout it all, one has to wonder, as I did, whether anybody caught on to, or was angered by, the Church’s manipulation of the Madonnelle. The answer, somewhat difficult to find, was that some did catch on and were in fact angered. Some people even accused the Church of having staged the miracles. Here is the promised story of a miracle that took place in June 1871, retold by a doubter.
“Two ciociari, or country people, stopped in front of the Madonna image near Porta Cavalleggeri, in the proximity of Saint Peter’s: ‘[T]hey look in amazement, they fall on their knees, they start to cry out: “the eyes are moving, the eyes are moving!” Customs officers, country men and country women stop, argue, some shout “a miracle, a miracle!” A large crowd assembles; the presumed ciociari go away without leaving a trace: the traffic is interrupted; the carters curse the blocked passage. As
after an agreed signal, all of Borgo sets off towards the gate to venerate the miraculous image; flowers and torches are brought, litanies are sung. All that in less than one hour, [which] is evident proof that the coup was prepared. The fascination spreads: all see the eyes of the sacred image moving to the right, then to the left; whoever does not see this is a misbeliever, an excommunicated buzzurro.’”
Still, most people appreciated and respected the Madonnelle, whether they actually believed in the miracles or not. Even years later, visitors to Rome were moved by the general public’s adoration of the Madonnelle. For example, American sculptor William Story, who lived in Rome for decades, was impressed with the Roman treatment of the Madonnelle. In December 1856, he spoke of a spontaneous adoration of a Madonella that moved him. It began with two young boys playing music in front of the shrine and ended with the participation of the entire neighborhood. He explained that “as they stood there playing, a little group gathered round. A scamp of a boy left his sport to come and beat time with a stick on the stone step before them; several children clustered near; and two or three women, with black-eyed infants in their arms, also paused to listen and sympathize.” There is something about these little Madonnas that inspire and intrigue all who see them.
Contemporary Views“The images of the Virgin Mary are there to protect the house and the town, but also to awaken devotion in those who pass by, as they say a short prayer, a greeting, or at least by making the sign of the cross upon themselves. The sculptures are public displays of religion, keeping it constantly present, provoking devotional acts.”
In 1944, even after public lighting in Rome had improved so that Madonnelle were no longer the only means of lighting, there were still over 637 wall shrines in Rome. Today, Romans can be spotted making the sign of the cross or whispering a prayer as they walk past Madonnelle on the streets. Furthermore, it is not uncommon to see candles, flowers, and other offerings left for the Madonnelle. They have not been forgotten. In fact, they are actively remembered. In 2000, Madonnelle all over Rome were restored for the jubilee. Photographs were and are placed in spots were Madonnelle once existed but were stolen or moved. This is yet another reminder to us that the Madonnas are adored for what they represent and not their physical characteristics.
Painting of Madonna where a Madonella once stoodLike William Story, I have been continuously awed and surprised to discover how strongly people felt (and feel) about the street shrines. At first, I was most surprised by the miracles they are credited with performing. The stories are incredible! However, as my research continued, I grew more and more fascinated with their complex, convoluted history. The street shrines completely changed three times: from displaying the faces of household deities to depictions of Augustus and his family to the beautiful portrayals of the Madonna we see today. Against all odds -terrible weather, extreme opposition, continous reconstruction, movement, theft -the street shrines have survived. This, I think, is their most extraordinary miracle of all.
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